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Modafinil Stats & Data

Stimulant Nootropic

Alertec Provigil Modiodal Modalert Modvigil

NPS DataHub

MW273.36

FormulaC15H15NO2S

CAS68693-11-8

IUPAC2-benzhydrylsulfinylacetamide

SMILESNC(=O)CS(=O)C(c1ccccc1)c1ccccc1

InChIKeyYFGHCGITMMYXAQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Psychoactive Class Stimulant

Interaction Warnings

⚠ mdma

The neurotoxic effects of MDMA may be increased when combined with other stimulants.

Pharmacology

DrugBank

Half-life 23-215 hours Protein binding 60% State Solid Vd * 0.9 L/kg Metabolism Hepatic

Description

Modafinil is a stimulant drug marketed as a 'wakefulness promoting agent' and is one of the stimulants used in the treatment of narcolepsy. Narcolepsy is caused by dysfunction of a family of wakefulness-promoting and sleep-suppressing peptides, the orexins, whose neurons are activated by modafinil. The prexin neuron activation is associated with psychoactivation and euphoria. The exact mechanism of action is unclear, although in vitro studies have shown it to inhibit the reuptake of dopamine by binding to the dopamine reuptake pump, and lead to an increase in extracellular dopamine. Modafinil activates glutamatergic circuits while inhibiting GABA.

Mechanism of Action

The exact mechanism of action is unclear, although <i>in vitro</i> studies have shown it to inhibit the reuptake of dopamine by binding to the dopamine reuptake pump, and lead to an increase in extracellular dopamine. Modafinil activates glutamatergic circuits while inhibiting GABA. Modafinil is thought to have less potential for abuse than other stimulants due to the absence of any significant euphoric or pleasurable effects. It is possible that modafinil acts by a synergistic combination of mechanisms including direct inhibition of dopamine reuptake, indirect inhibition of noradrenalin reuptake in the VLPO and orexin activation. Modafinil has partial alpha 1B-adrenergic agonist effects by directly stimulating the receptors.

Pharmacodynamics

Modafinil is a stimulant drug marketed as a 'wakefulness promoting agent' and is one of the stimulants used in the treatment of narcolepsy. Narcolepsy is caused by dysfunction of a family of wakefulness-promoting and sleep-suppressing peptides, the orexins, whose neurons are activated by modafinil. The prexin neuron activation is associated with psychoactivation and euphoria. Modafinil is not indicated for complaints of lack of energy or fatigue; but it appears to be very helpful for some patients. Also, it has been used in the treatment of hypersomnia, a disorder in which patients lack the capacity for meaningful sleep and may require ten or more hours per day. Recent studies have have found that modafinil may help recovering cocaine addicts fight their addiction.

Absorption

Rapid following oral administration.

Indication

To improve wakefulness in patients with excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) associated with narcolepsy.

Elimination

The major route of elimination is metabolism (~90%), primarily by the liver, with subsequent renal elimination of the metabolites.

Receptor Profile

Receptor Actions

Inhibitors

Atypical dopamine reuptake inhibitor

Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (weak)

Other

increases histamine and orexin/hypocretin signaling

Receptor Binding

Sodium-dependent dopamine transporter inhibitor

History & Culture

1970s–1994

Modafinil was developed in France by neurophysiology professor Michel Jouvet and Lafon Laboratories. The compound emerged from research into a series of benzhydryl sulfinyl compounds initiated in the late 1970s. The first of these compounds to reach clinical use was adrafinil, which was offered as an experimental treatment for narcolepsy in France in 1986. Researchers subsequently identified modafinil as the primary active metabolite of adrafinil, differing from its parent compound only by lacking a polar hydroxyl group on its terminal amide. This metabolite demonstrated similar wakefulness-promoting activity but would eventually become far more widely used than the original compound.

1994–2012

Modafinil received its first regulatory approval in France in 1994, where it was marketed under the brand name Modiodal. The United States Food and Drug Administration approved the drug in 1998 for the treatment of narcolepsy, followed by additional approvals in 2003 for shift work sleep disorder and obstructive sleep apnea. The United Kingdom approved modafinil in December 2002. The pharmaceutical company Cephalon acquired the rights to modafinil from Lafon Laboratories, subsequently purchasing the French company outright in 2001. Cephalon marketed the drug in the United States under the brand name Provigil. In 2007, Cephalon introduced armodafinil, the isolated R-enantiomer of modafinil, as a second-generation product. The parent compound adrafinil, which never received FDA approval, was eventually withdrawn from the French market in 2011. Generic versions of modafinil became available in the United States in 2012 following extensive patent litigation.

1991–present

Modafinil has seen significant adoption within military contexts as a fatigue countermeasure. During the Gulf War, the compound was used by the French Foreign Legion, the United States Air Force, and US Marines to enhance what military planners term "operational tempo"—the speed and intensity at which military operations are executed. Armed forces in the United States, United Kingdom, India, and France have evaluated modafinil as an alternative to traditional amphetamines for managing sleep deprivation during combat operations or extended missions. The US military ultimately approved modafinil for specific Air Force missions, replacing amphetamines as the standard fatigue management agent. The compound is also available to astronauts aboard the International Space Station to address fatigue resulting from circadian rhythm disruption in orbit.

2003–2015

The regulation of modafinil as a doping agent has generated considerable controversy in competitive athletics, with several high-profile cases drawing significant media attention. The World Anti-Doping Agency officially added modafinil to its list of prohibited substances on August 3, 2004—just ten days before the opening of the 2004 Summer Olympics. Some athletes who tested positive argued that the substance was not explicitly banned at the time of their violations, though WADA maintained that modafinil was sufficiently related to already-prohibited substances to warrant enforcement. American sprinter Kelli White tested positive for modafinil following her 100-meter victory at the 2003 World Championships in Paris. Despite claiming she used the medication to treat narcolepsy, the International Association of Athletics Federations ruled that modafinil constituted a performance-enhancing drug, and White was stripped of her gold medals. Subsequent doping cases involving modafinil included cyclist David Clinger and basketball player Diana Taurasi in 2010, as well as rower Timothy Grant in 2015. The BALCO scandal also brought attention to unsubstantiated but widely circulated reports that baseball player Barry Bonds had included modafinil in his supplemental regimen alongside anabolic steroids and human growth hormone.

Beyond its approved medical indications, modafinil has gained substantial mainstream popularity as a cognitive enhancement agent or "smart drug," valued for its purported ability to improve memory, reduce the desire for sleep, and increase general productivity. By 2017, modafinil had become the 328th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States. Ongoing research has also investigated potential applications in addiction medicine, with some studies exploring whether modafinil may assist individuals recovering from cocaine dependence in maintaining abstinence.

Subjective Effect Notes

physical: The physical effects of modafinil can be broken down into several components.

cognitive: The cognitive effects of modafinil can be broken down into several components.

Effect Profile

Curated + 215 Reports

Stimulant 8.0

Strong stimulation, focus, and anxiety/jitters with moderate euphoria

Stimulation / Energy×3

1010

Euphoria / Mood Lift×2

75.6

Focus / Productivity×2

1010

Anxiety / Jitters×1

1010

Catalog Erowid

Based on reports from:

Erowid Experience Reports PsychonautWiki Modafinil The Drug Users Bible Modafinil

Empirical Duration

Erowid Reports

Onset Come Up Peak Offset

Oral (25 reports)

Experience Report Analysis

Erowid BlueLight

203 Reports

2001–2023 Date Range

99 With Age Data

30 Effects Detected

Demographics

Gender Distribution

Age Distribution

Reports Over Time

Effect Analysis

Erowid + Bluelight

Effects aggregated from 215 experience reports (203 Erowid + 12 Bluelight)

215 Reports

81 Effects Detected

28 Positive

38 Adverse

15 Neutral

Effect Sentiment Distribution

Confidence Distribution

Positive Effects 28

Stimulation 69.7% 89%

Focus Enhancement 57.7% 88%

Euphoria 37.6% 89%

Contentment 16.7% 85%

Joy 16.7% 80%

Geometric Imagery 16.7% 78%

Physical Energy Burst 16.7% 90%

Empathy 14.8% 70%

Music Enhancement 14.8% 70%

Tactile Enhancement 10.7% 80%

Color Enhancement 8.4% 80%

Memory Enhancement 8.3% 90%

Timelessness 8.3% 70%

Contact-With-Presence 8.3% 75%

Tactile Intimacy Enhancement 8.3% 75%

Motor Enhancement 8.3% 90%

Size Distortion 8.3% 75%

Alertness 8.3% 95%

Analysis Enhancement 8.3% 80%

Ego Inflation 8.3% 80%

Adverse Effects 38

Anxiety 41.4% 70%

Insomnia 33.3% 84%

Restlessness 16.7% 78%

Itching 16.7% 85%

Drowsiness 16.7% 82%

Thought Disorganization 16.7% 78%

Involuntary Movements 16.7% 80%

Time Dilation 16.7% 88%

Frequent Urination 16.7% 85%

Body Load 16.7% 78%

Headache 15.9% 75%

Increased Heart Rate 13.8% 70%

Confusion 13.5% 90%

Nausea 11.1% 85%

Jaw Clenching 8.4% 83%

Jitteriness 8.3% 85%

Heart Palpitations 8.3% 85%

Aggression 8.3% 85%

Emotional Blunting 8.3% 85%

Stuffy Nose 8.3% 80%

Dose-Response Correlation

How effect frequency changes across dose levels

View data table

Effect	Common (n=25)	Strong (n=53)	Heavy (n=21)
Stimulation	80.0%	79.2%	57.1%
Focus Enhancement	64.0%	50.9%	57.1%
Sedation	40.0%	54.7%	42.9%
Anxiety	40.0%	39.6%	47.6%
Euphoria	44.0%	35.8%	38.1%
Headache	20.0%	20.8%	14.3%
Music Enhancement	20.0%	13.2%	19.0%
Increased Heart Rate	20.0%	18.9%	9.5%
Tactile Enhancement	16.0%	11.3%	19.0%
Empathy	12.0%	17.0%	19.0%
Confusion	0%	15.1%	9.5%
Auditory Effects	12.0%	11.3%	14.3%
Visual Distortions	8.0%	5.7%	14.3%
Nausea	0%	7.5%	14.3%
Psychosis	0%	3.8%	14.3%

Subjective Effect Ontology

Experience Reports

Structured effect tags extracted from 215 Erowid & Bluelight experience reports using a controlled vocabulary of 220+ canonical effects across 15 domains.

Cognitive

focus enhancement 124 57.7%

Motor

stimulation 150 69.7%

2 unique effects extracted · Derived from Erowid & Bluelight reports

Dose–Effect Mapping

Experience Reports

How reported effects shift across dose tiers, based on 203 experience reports.

Oral dose range: 100.0–200.0 mg (median 200.0 mg)

Effect	Common (n=25)	Strong (n=53)	Heavy (n=21)
stimulation	80%	79%	57%	↓
focus enhancement	64%	51%	57%	→
sedation	40%	55%	43%	→
anxiety	40%	40%	48%	↑
euphoria	44%	36%	38%	→
headache	20%	21%	14%	↓
music enhancement	20%	13%	19%	→
increased heart rate	20%	19%	10%	↓
tactile enhancement	16%	11%	19%	↑
empathy	12%	17%	19%	↑
confusion	—	15%	10%	↓
auditory effects	12%	11%	14%	↑
visual distortions	8%	6%	14%	↑
nausea	—	8%	14%	↑
psychosis	—	4%	14%	↑
dissociation	—	—	14%	→
hospital	8%	13%	—	↑
body high	12%	9%	—	↓
memory suppression	—	11%	10%	↓
color enhancement	8%	6%	10%	↑

Showing top 20 of 26 effects

Risk Escalation

Sentiment Analysis

Average frequency of positive vs adverse effects across dose tiers

Common n=25

8 positive 32.0% 5 adverse 19.2%

Strong n=53

10 positive 23.4% 11 adverse 12.9%

Heavy n=21

8 positive 28.5% 7 adverse 17.0%

View effect breakdown

Adverse Effects

Effect	Common (n=25)	Strong (n=53)	Heavy (n=21)	Change
Anxiety	40%	40%	48%	+19%
Headache	20%	21%	14%	-28%
Increased Heart Rate	20%	19%	10%	-52%
Confusion	—	15%	10%	-37%
Nausea	—	8%	14%	+90%
Psychosis	—	4%	14%	+276%
Memory Suppression	—	11%	10%	-15%
Muscle Tension	8%	6%	—	-28%
Jaw Clenching	8%	6%	—	-28%
Appetite Suppression	—	8%	—	0%
Motor Impairment	—	6%	—	0%

Positive Effects

Effect	Common (n=25)	Strong (n=53)	Heavy (n=21)	Change
Stimulation	80%	79%	57%	-28%
Focus Enhancement	64%	51%	57%	-10%
Euphoria	44%	36%	38%	-13%
Music Enhancement	20%	13%	19%	-5%
Tactile Enhancement	16%	11%	19%	+18%
Empathy	12%	17%	19%	+58%
Body High	12%	9%	—	-21%
Color Enhancement	8%	6%	10%	+18%
Creativity Enhancement	—	8%	10%	+26%
Introspection	—	4%	—	0%

Dosage Distribution

Dose distribution from experience reports

Median: 200.0 mg IQR: 100.0–200.0 mg n=104

Real-World Dose Distribution

62K Doses

From 247 individual dose entries

Oral (n=214)

Median: 200.0mg 25th: 100.0mg 75th: 200.0mg 90th: 300.0mg

mg/kg median: 2.261 mg/kg 75th: 3.307

Insufflated (n=10)

Median: 200.0mg 25th: 125.0mg 75th: 200.0mg 90th: 220.0mg

mg/kg median: 2.594 mg/kg 75th: 2.735

Common Combinations

Most co-occurring substances in experience reports

Form / Preparation

Most common forms and preparations reported

Body-Weight Dosing

Dose relative to body weight from reports with weight data

Oral

Median: 2.451 mg/kg IQR: 1.575–3.576 mg/kg n=102

Insufflated

Median: 2.755 mg/kg IQR: 0.526–2.941 mg/kg n=6

Redose Patterns

Redosing behavior across 147 reports

18.4% Redosed

1.3 Avg Doses

360m Median Interval

Read full reports on Erowid →

Legal Status

Country	Status	Notes
Argentina	Regulated	Officially regulated as a prescription medicine. Reports suggest pharmacies may sell without prescription due to limited familiarity with regulations.
Australia	Schedule 4 (Prescription Only)	Classified as a prescription-only medicine under the Poisons Standard. Can be prescribed for sleep apnea and narcolepsy. Sold under the brand name Modavigil.
Austria	NR (Prescription Only)	Classified as prescription-only with repeated dispense prohibited. Requires a new prescription for each dispensing.
Canada	Schedule F	Listed in Part I of Schedule F of Canada's Food and Drug Regulations. Requires a prescription for both human and veterinary use. Available under brand names including Alertec since 1999.
Finland	Prescription Only (Not Controlled)	Not classified as a controlled substance but regulated as a prescription drug. As of February 2011, pharmacies do not typically stock modafinil and the European Medicines Agency recommends restricting its use to narcolepsy treatment only.
France	Prescription Only	Available by prescription since 1994 under the brand name Modiodal. Subject to EMA recommendations limiting use to excessive sleepiness associated with narcolepsy.
Germany	Prescription Only (Anlage 1 AMVV)	Classified as a prescription medicine under Anlage 1 of the Arzneimittelverschreibungsverordnung. In February 2008, it was removed from Anlage III of the Betäubungsmittelgesetz (similar to US Schedule III-IV) and is now available with a standard prescription.
Italy	Prescription Only	Available by prescription under the brand name Provigil.
Mexico	Uncontrolled (Prescription Recommended)	Sold under the brand name Modiodal. Does not appear to be scheduled as a controlled substance, though it is marketed as a prescription pharmaceutical.
New Zealand	Prescription Medicine	Classified as a prescription medicine under the Medicines Act 1981. Sold under the brand name Modavigil. The Act prohibits importing, procuring, receiving, storing, using, or possessing any prescription medicine without reasonable excuse.
Romania	Controlled Substance	Classified as a controlled substance. Importing through mail order without proper authorization may result in fines up to 3000 Euro.
Russian Federation	Schedule II	Listed in Schedule II of controlled substances. Banned for personal possession, sale, and from most medical use.
Spain	Prescription Medicine	Available by prescription under the brand name Modiodal. Reports indicate some pharmacies may dispense without prescription for indicated conditions, though this practice is not officially sanctioned.
Sweden	Schedule 4	Classified as a Schedule 4 drug. Prescribed for narcolepsy and hypersomnia. Sold under the brand name Modiodal in 100mg tablets.
Switzerland	Abgabekategorie B	Listed as a Category B pharmaceutical, which requires a physician's prescription for dispensing.
Turkey	Uncontrolled	Available without prescription from pharmacies. Not classified as a controlled substance.
United Kingdom	Prescription Only Medicine (POM)	Licensed as a prescription-only medicine but not scheduled as a controlled substance. Possession without a valid prescription is not a criminal offense. Legal personal import permitted under Section 13 of the Medicines Act 1968. Prescribing restrictions were reduced in 2004.
United States	Schedule IV	Controlled under the Controlled Substances Act. Illegal to sell without DEA license and illegal to buy or possess without a valid prescription. Approved by the FDA in 1998 for narcolepsy, obstructive sleep apnea, and shift work sleep disorder.

References

Data Sources

Cited References

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